Agricultural Wage †Productivity Relationship Analysis

Agricultural Wage – Productivity Relationship Analysis A STUDY ON AGRICULTURAL WAGE – PRODUCTIVITY RELATIONSHIP WITH REFERENCE TO GROUNDNUT CROP IN CHITTOOR DISTRICT (ANDHRA PRADESH) Dr. E. Lokanadha Reddy, Abstract— The increase in production and productivity are influencing agricultural wages. But the results of empirical studies have shown a positive relationship between real wages and productivity. It is also observed that the real wages seem to have declined or remained stagnant in spite of increasing agricultural production. However, a close relationship may be found between wages and productivity. There are number of studies on the agricultural sector in Chittoor district. But the research on agricultural wage – productivity relationship is very limited. This paper aims to study the Agricultural Wage – Productivity Relationship with reference to Groundnut crop in Chittoor district, Andhra Pradesh. An attempt has been made to study the relationship between wages and yield, output price of major crop ‘Groundnut’ for entire district as a whole. A regression model is used to study the relationship. In the present study, the relevant secondary data fo r explanatory and explained variables is collected from the Census of India 1991 : Population Census and also from handbook of statistics and other unpublished official records of the Chief Planning Officer, Chittoor. The primary data required is collected through field survey : 1998-99. In case of female agricultural labour, regarding the lagged yields, the rate of increase in real wages (0.19) is twice as compared to that of money wages. This increase in real wages over money wages reveals that the economic position of the female agricultural labour may be increased due to raise in lagged yields. Owing to the lagged price, the rate of increase in real wages of female agricultural labour (0.39) as compared to the female agricultural money wages (1.41) is approximately one forth. This result shows that about 3/4th of the monetary gains of the female agricultural labour has been taken away by consumer price rise. From this rate of increase in real wages, it may be concluded that the real economic position of the female agricultural labour has been deteriorated marginally. The same variables for the male population is studied and analysed . Further, the same was calculated separately for the three revenue divisions of Chittoor District. Keywords- Agricultrual Productivity; Female Money Wagerate; Female Real Wagerate; Male Money Wagerate; Male Real Wagerate; Regression Co-efficients; I. Introduction The term agricultural productivity we mean the varying relationship between the agricultural output and one of the major input such as land. The most commonly used term for representing agricultural productivity is the average yield per hectare of land. After the introduction of modern agricultural technique along with the adoption of hybrid seeds, extension of irrigation facilities and application of intensive methods of cultivation in India, yield per hectare of all crops has recorded a steep rising trend. Agricultural productivity in India has undergone an abrupt change in the Post-Green Revolution period. But the fruits of green revolution were mostly available to some particular states only, as the introduction of new agricultural strategy was very much restricted into some particular states like Punjab, Haryana and Western Uttarpradesh. Thus while the agricultural productivity in all other states remained more or less static or increased slowly but the agricultural productivity of some crops in those particular states adopting new agricultural strategy has increased substantially. All these had led to a high degree of inter-state differences in agricultural productivity in the country. The condition of Indian agriculture still largely remains backward although it is considered as the backbone of the Indian economy. Agriculture productivity which is composed of both productivity of land and labour as well, is among the lowest in the world. Average yield per hectare in India is quite below the world average in all crops. It is much lower as compared with even the yield rates prevailing in less advanced countries of the world. With the introduction of economic planning in India, although some steps have been undertaken for improving the conditions of agriculture, its conditions have not changed much. In subsistence farming, the relation between wages and productivity is not like that in the modern sector where additional labour is employed to increase output and we imagine an employer equating wages with the marginal product. Wages and productivity are related in the sense that wages are paid out of total product, which depends upon productivity. The increase in production and productivity are influencing agricultural wages. But the results of empirical studies have shown a positive relationship between real wages and productivity. It is also observed that the real wages seem to have declined or remained stagnant in spite of increasing agricultural production. However, a close relationship may be found between wages and productivity. There are number of studies on the agricultural sector in Chittoor district. But the research on agricultural wage – productivity relationship is very limited. Hence an attempt is made to study the Agricultural Wage – Productivity Relationship with reference to Groundnut crop in Chittoor district, Andhra Pradesh. II. OBJECTIVES The following is the objective of the study: To study the Agricultural Wage – Productivity Relationship with reference to Groundnut crop in Chittoor district, Andhra Pradesh. III. METHODOLOGY An attempt has been made to study the relationship between wages and yield, output price of major crop ‘Groundnut’ for entire district as a whole. Therefore the following regression model is proposed to study the relationship. Y = a+ b X1 +c X2 (1) Where, Y = Real/money wagerate X1 = Lagged yield (Quintals per hectare) X2 = Lagged price (Rs. Per quintal) a, b and c are the constants. Both the linear and log-linear models have been estimated to the above model and it is decided that the log – linear model yields good results. Hence, the analysis has been carried out to log – linear model only. The log – linear model is as follows : logY = a+ b logX1 +c logX2 (2) In the present study, the relevant secondary data for explanatory and explained variables is collected from the Census of India 1991 : Population Census and also from handbook of statistics and other unpublished official records of the Chief Planning Officer, Chittoor. The primary data required is collected through field survey : 1998-99. IV. FINDINGS It is proposed to study the relationship between wages with yield and output prices per quintal of groundnut. Between the linear and log-linear estimates; log-linear model gives better results than the linear estimates. The equation (2) given in the methodology is estimated. The results were analysed based on log-linear estimates for the entire district as a whole. The estimated regression equation for female money wagerate is Y = -7.2169 + 0.0821 X1 +1.4356* X2 (0.2840) (0.1258) R2 = 0.9064 , F = 76.8136* * Significant at 5 per cent probability level. The two estimated regression co-efficients of lagged yield (X1) and lagged price (X2) are positive. It means, the effect of these two variables on money wagerate (Y) is positive. An increase in these two variables will increase the female money wagerate in Chittoor district. An increase in one unit of lagged yield will increase the female money wagerate by 0.08 units, but this increase is not significant. Similarly, an increase in one unit of lagged price will increase the female money wagerate by 1.44 units. This increase is significant. Hence, female money wages are influenced by changes in the yield and prices of output. One unit increase in output would result in more than one unit increase in money wage showing the improvements in real wages. With respect to the groundnut yield, the positive co-efficients of yield implying that wages are influenced by changes in the yields. It indicates that the benefits of technology has not reached the agricultural labourers at significant lev el. This indicates that the benefits which accrued to the groundnut farmers through a rise in the output prices also percolated to the agricultural labourers. The co-efficient of constant or intercept is -7.2169. It means the factors which are not considered in the model shows negative effect on female money wages. The collective effect of the two independent variables – X1 and X2 is shown by the value of R2. The value of R2 is 0.9064. It indicates that 90.64 percent of variation in female money wagerate is observed by these two independent variables. The value of R2 is significant. The estimated regression equation for female real wagerate is Y = -4.392 + 0.1886 X1 +0.3938* X2 (0.1505) (0.0666) R2 = 0.7541 , F = 51.4269* * Significant at 5 percent probability level. The two estimated regression co-efficients of independent variables – X1 and X2 are positive. It means the effect of these two variables on female real wagerate (Y) is positive. An increase in these two variables will increase the female real wagerate in Chittoor district. An increase in one unit of lagged yield will increase the female real wagerate by 0.19 units. But this increase is not significant. Similarly, an increase in one unit of lagged price will increase the female real wagerate by 0.39 units. This increase is significant. Hence, female real wages are influenced by changes in the yield and prices of output. The co-efficient of constant or intercept is -4.392. It means, the factors which are not considered in the model show negative effect on female real wages. The collective effect of the two independent variables – X1 and X2 is shown by the value of R2. The value of R2 is 0.7541. It indicates that, 75.46 percent of variation in female real wagerate is obser ved by these two independent variables. The value of R2 is significant. The estimated regression equation for male money wagerate is Y = -6.8562 + 0.0901* X1 +1.4094* X2 (0.0349) (0.0155) R2 = 0.8982 , F = 70.5855* * Significant at 5 percent probability level. The two estimated regression co-efficients of lagged yield (X1) and lagged price (X2) are positive and significant. It means the positive relationship is observed between independent variables X1 and X2 with dependent variable (Y). An increase in these two variables will increase the male money wagerate in Chittoor district. An increase in one unit of lagged yield will increase the male money wagerate by 0.09 units. But this increase is significant. Similarly, an increase in one unit of lagged price will increase the male money wagerate by 1.41 units. This increase is significant. Hence, male money wages are influenced by changes in the yield and prices of output. One unit increase in groundnut price would result in more than one unit increase in money wage showing the improvements in real wages. The positive and significant co-efficient of yield reveals that wages are influenced by changes in the yield. It mean the benefits of technology have reached the agricultural labourers at s ignificant level. It indicates that a rise in the output prices is beneficial to the groundnut farmers which in turn effects the agricultural labourers. The co-efficient of intercept is -6.8562. It means the factors which are not considered in the model show negative effect on male money wages. The collective effect of the two independent variables X1 and X2 is shown by the value of R2. The value of R2 is 0.8982. It indicates a variation of 89.82 percent in male money wagerate is observed by these two independent variables. The value of R2 is significant. The estimated regression equation for male real wagerate is Y = -0.2138 – 0.0513 X1 +0.3252* X2 (0.0189) (0.0835) R2 = 0.6702 , F = 16.267* * Significant at 5 percent probability level. The estimated co-efficient of lagged yield (X1) is negative and insignificant. It means the negative relationship is observed between X1 variable and male real wagerate. An increase in the lagged yield will decrease the male real wagerate in Chittoor district. The estimated co-efficient of lagged price (X2) is positive and significant. It means the effect of independent variable (X2) on male real wagerate is positive. An increase in the lagged price will increase the male real wagerate in the district. An increase in one unit of X1 variable will decrease the male real wagerate (Y) by 0.05 units. But this decrease is not significant. Similarly, an increase in one unit of X2 variable will increase the male real wagerate (Y) by 0.33 units. This increase is significant. Hence, male real wages are affected by changes in the yield and prices of output. The co-efficient of constant is -0.2138. It means the factors which are not considered in the model show negative effect on male real wages . The collective effect of the two independent variables X1 and X2 are shown by the value of R2. The value of R2 is 0.6702. It indicates that, 67.02 percent of variation in male real wagerate is observed by these two independent variables. The value of R2 is significant. V. CONCLUSIONS In case of female agricultural labour, regarding the lagged yields, the rate of increase in real wages (0.19) is twice as compared to that of money wages. This increase in real wages over money wages reveals that the economic position of the female agricultural labour may be increased due to raise in lagged yields. Owing to the lagged price, the rate of increase in real wages of female agricultural labour (0.39) as compared to the female agricultural money wages (1.41) is approximately one forth. This result shows that about 3/4th of the monetary gains of the female agricultural labour has been taken away by consumer price rise. From this rate of increase in real wages, it may be concluded that the real economic position of the female agricultural labour has been deteriorated marginally. Whereas for male agricultural labour, in case of lagged yield is observed that there is a decreasing trend in male real wages (-0.05) and an increasing trend in male money wages (0.09). This results indicates that the declining trend in real economic position of the male agricultural labour. With respect to the lagged price, the rate of increase in real wages of male agricultural labour (0.32) as compared to the male money wages (1.41) is just marginal. This results tells that about 3/4th of the monetary gains of the male agricultural labour has been taken away by consumer price rise. From this rate of increase in real wages, it may be concluded that the real economic conditions of the male agricultural labour has been decreased marginally. references Misra, V.N., and Gupta, S.B.L. (1974). Productivity, wages and its determination in Gujarat Agriculture : An Inter-District Analysis. Indian Journal of Agricultural Economics, vol.XXIX, No.3, July-September, pp.22-34. Pandey, R.K., and Dixit, U.N. (1974). Inter-Temporal Analysis of Productivity and Wages of Farm Labour in Ferozepur District (Punjab). Indian Journal of Agricultural Economics, vol.XXIX, No.3, July-September, pp.34-40. Pandey, V.K., and Pandey, R.N. (1974). Trends in Agricultural Wages in Uttar Pradesh. Indian Journal of agricultural Economics, vol.XXIX, No.3, July-September, pp.70. Sisodia, J.S. (1974). Trends in Agricultural wages in Madya Pradesh. Indian Journal of agricultural Economics, vol.XXIX, No.3, July-September, pp.73. Raju, V.T. (1974). Impact of Green Revolution on Wages and Incomes of Hired Labour in IADP District., West Godavari. Indian Journal of agricultural Economics, vol.XXIX, No.3, July-September, pp.74. Prudhvikar Reddy, P. (1998). Trends in Agricultural Wages : An Inter-Regional Analysis in Andhra Pradesh. Economic and Political Weekly, vol. XXXIII, No.13, March 28, pp. A.15-A.19. Sidhu, H.S. (1988). Wage Determination in the Rural Labour Market – The Case of Punjab and Haryana. Economic and Political Weekly, Review of Agriculture, December, 24th – 31st, pp.A.147-A.150. Kalpana Bardhan, (1973). Factors affecting Wagerates for Agricultural Labourers. Economic and political weekly, vol.VIII, No.26, June 30, pp.A.56-A.66. Pandey, S.M. (1973). Wage Determination in Indian Agriculture : An Empirical Analysis. Indian Journal of Industrial Relations, vol.9, July, pp.83-99. Singh, M.L., and Singh, K.K. (1974). Factors Determining Agricultural Wages – A Case Study. Indian Journal of Agricultural Economics, vol.XXIX, No.3, July – September, pp.54-60. Paramar, B.D. (1981). Wage Determination in Developing Economy : The case of Gujarat Agriculture. The Indian Journal of Labour Economics, vol.XXIII, No.4, January, pp.231-240. Pushpangdan, K. (1993). Wage Determination in a Casual Labour Market : The Case of Paddy field Labour in Kerala. The Indian Journal of Labour Economics, vol. XXXVI, No.1, January – March. Acharya, Sarthi. (1989). Agricultural wages in India : A Desegregated Analysis. Indian Journal of Agricultural Economics, vol.44, No.2. Gough, J.W. (1971). Agricultural Wages in Punjab and Haryana. Economic and Political Weekly, vol.VI, No.13, March.27. Grewal, S.S., and Bal, H.S. (1974). Impact of Green Revolution on Agricultural Wages in the Punjab. Indian Journal of Agricultural Economics, vol.XXIX, No.3, July-September. Jose, A.V. (1974). Trends in Real Wage Rates of Agricultural Labourers. Economic and Political Weekly, vol.IX, No.13, March. Jose, A.V. (1988). Agricultural Wages in India. Economic and Political Weekly, vol.23, No.26, June. Krishnaji, N. (1971), Wages of Agricultural Labour. Economic and Political Weekly, vol.6, No.30, September. Parthasarathy, G., and Adiseshu. (1982). Rural Wages of Agricultural Labour in Andhra Pradesh – Two Decades of Stagnation. Economic and Political Weekly, vol.XVII, NO.31. Rao, V.M. (1972). Agricultural Wages in India – A Reliability Analysis. Indian Journal of Agricultural Economics, vol.XXVII, No.3, July – September. Acharya, Sarthi, and Papanak, G.F. (1989). Agricultural Wages and Poverty in India – A model of Rural Labour Markets. Asian Centre Discussion Peer, No.3, CADS, Boston University, Boston, U.S.A. AUTHORS PROFILE

Effects of Medicinal Versus Recreational Marijuana Use :: Biology Essays Research Papers

Effects of Medicinal Versus Recreational Marijuana Use Is there a difference in the psychological/healing effects between the use of "recreational" marijuana and medicinal marijuana? Before researching this question, I could not understand what difference medicinal marijuana would have on cancer patients that was not already known through previous studies on the drug. I thought I fully understood marijuana's effects on the brain until the issues of medicinal marijuana arose. Prior to the research on the subject, I assumed that much of what is known now about the drug is due to the extensive research on its affects on Cancer and AIDS patients. If the use of marijuana is controlled for therapeutic purposes, are the effects different if used regular for non-medicinal purposes? This is the question I attempt to answer through extensive web research. In the past 5 years, there has been an increased debate about the use of medicinal marijuana in treating cancer and AIDS patients. Marijuana has been used in alternative medical treatment by doctors around the country and by patients themselves who seek relief from the pain caused by cancer and AIDS. Controlled use of marijuana has been used to treat a number of diseases: "AIDS. Marijuana can reduce the nausea, vomiting, and loss of appetite caused by the ailment itself and by various AIDS medications. Glaucoma. Marijuana can reduce intraocular pressure, thereby alleviating the pain and slowing -- and sometimes stopping -- the progress of the condition. Cancer. Marijuana can stimulate the appetite and alleviate nausea and vomiting, which are common side effects of chemotherapy treatment. Multiple Sclerosis. Marijuana can limit the muscle pain and spasticity caused by the disease, as well as relieving tremor and unsteadiness of gait. Epilepsy. Marijuana can prevent epileptic seizures in some patients. Chronic Pain. Marijuana can alleviate the chronic, often debilitating pain caused by myriad disorders and injuries." (1) Institutions nationally have conducted studies on the use of medicinal marijuana on disease stricken patients. The Institute of Medicine published a journal on the use of marijuana and the effects it as a recreational drug and medicinal drug. Because the substance, when used medicinally, is monitored/controlled, the psychological effects on the patient is slightly different, and its effects also vary depending on the type of the disease the patient is suffering from. A complete report done by the National Academy of Sciences details the psychological effects of recreational and medicinal marijuana. In the 20th century, marijuana has been used more for its euphoric effects than as a medicine.

No More Sunshine on Leith Essay

It was a cold, frosty night in Edinburgh, and yet people still insisted on going to the pub for an evening drink. Two of these people were Mike and Danny Roxborough who were headed to their favourite pub, the Persevere. The lampposts brightly lit their path. The moon was ever-present tonight, as there was not a cloud in the sky, meaning that there would probably be a frost tomorrow. When they reached the pub and Mike turned in, closely followed by Danny, the first thing they did was scan the room for any familiar faces to talk to. As he looked around Mike couldn’t see anyone he knew so he sent Danny to get them a couple of beers and headed off to their usual table – only to find someone else sitting there. He stood there, gazing at the pair, who looked as camp as camp can get. Both were men wearing bright purple and yellow suits, like something out of the 1950’s. As they were talking and Mike watched them, he noticed a growing similarity between their behaviour and the kind that gets people beaten up in the streets for being homosexual. Just as he was about to go and explain his situation, being left without a seat in a busy pub with someone else in his seat, when Danny came up to him carrying their drinks. â€Å"Couldnae find us a seat then, eh? Ah well. Ah might no stay long anyway. By the way, did y-† he was cut off as Mike raised his hand to Danny’s face. â€Å"These people have nicked our seats! Aren’t you goin’ to dae sumthin’ about it?! † â€Å"Yeh ken me Mike,† said Danny, cowering away and shooting nervous glances at the gentlemen occupying their table, â€Å"Ah dinnae like fightin’. † â€Å"Yer an eejit Danny! † said Mike as he approached the two camps. â€Å"S’cuse me fella’s, but I think yer in our seats. Would ye mind movin’ fir us? Cheers. † They looked at each other for a second before the purple-suited one turned back. The tension in the air could be easily felt, and the surrounding tables were starting to turn around and watch. â€Å"Ooh I do believe that we had these seats first, my friend! I’m afraid that I didn’t see your name on them, therefore we have a right to sit here. † â€Å"SHUT UP! † shouted Mike so loud that the rest pf the pub turned around to watch and even made Danny, who was used to these outbursts, nearly jump out of his skin. â€Å"Outside, if you please,† and then he bowed pointing the way to the emergency exit. â€Å"I object to this treatment! I’m going to sort you out once and for all,† and the purple suited one led the way outside, followed by the yellow suit and then Mike and Danny. Outside was freezing cold by now and a bitter wind had picked up, blowing leaves around in circles on a stretch of concrete that was marked off as a loading bay/car park. Danny and the yellow suit stood back to watch the sparks fly, frightened to get involved, whilst Mike and the purple suit stood, not moving a muscle, staring each other down. Then, suddenly, the purple suit caught Mike by surprise by rugby-tackling him to the concrete and kicking him on the ground. However, it would take a lot more than that to keep Mike Roxborough down. As he got back to his feet and lunged for purple suit, he staggered and fell onto a crate, smashing it. It looked like purple suit had actually taken him out of the running. As Mike stood up once again, purple suit started running rings around him and laughing his head off hysterically. Mike started swinging hooks at him then but couldn’t hit him. His reactions were just too slow. After a lot of swinging and laughing, Mike seemed to be really annoyed and Danny could see that. Mike was tired of being humiliated like this and wanted it to stop. He then picked up a sharp piece of wood from the smashed crate when purple suit was chatting to yellow suit and they started to leave. He ran straight for them and this time his aim was true. The sharp plank impaled the purple suit from behind and he screamed out before sinking to the ground with an expression of disbelief on his face. As all three remaining people stared in disbelief at the scene that was before them, Mike turned around and looked up at Danny with a guilty yet pleading look on his face. Danny knew he couldn’t do anything, and so stepped backwards into the shadows and headed home, leaving Mike on his own. He didn’t want anything to do with a murder.

African American Soldiers During The Civil War - 902 Words

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